The Rise of Nation-States

‘Country’ is a concept that feels even more tangible than money and religion. It not only has its own flag and anthem but also comprises physical elements like land, hills, mountains, and defined boundaries. For most of us, it’s difficult to imagine our world without countries, and pinpointing the establishment date of this concept is even more challenging.

Take my country, Nepal, for example. While there is a specific date we recognize for the unification of Nepal (1768 AD), our history extends far before the Common Era, with the first king, ‘Dharmakar,’ reigning in ancient times. Or consider India. While 1947 marks its independence from the British, the idea of India has existed for centuries. But again, this historical concept of India often referred to the land beyond the Indus River (present-day Indian Subcontinent), which was fragmented into various smaller states.

Modern countries, despite feeling eternal, are relatively recent constructs. Italy and Germany, two prominent European nations, did not exist as unified entities until the mid-19th century. Christopher Columbus, often called an Italian explorer, was actually a Genoese explorer, as there was no unified Italy during his time.

Before delve into history, it’s essential to distinguish between the terms country, nation, state, and nation-state. A nation refers to a group of people sharing common culture, language, religion, and history, while a state is a political entity with a permanent population, defined territory, government, and the capacity to engage with other states. A nation-state is a nation that possesses its own state. The term country can refer to a sovereign political unit but can also describe political units under other sovereign states. I know it’s a bit confusing, so let’s take an example to make the case clear. Kurdistan is a nation, Scotland is a country, and the United Kingdom is a state. Most modern countries are nation-states, which is why these terms are often used interchangeably.

Throughout most of history, empires ruled the world. From the Roman and Islamic empires to the Mongol and Ottoman empires, these large entities dominated for centuries. Some of these empires have since transformed into modern nation-states, making it difficult to pinpoint the exact birth of nation-states.

However, we can identify milestones in the formation of nation-states. The era of exploration is one such period. In the late 1400s, Spain began to unify under King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile. Their marriage in 1469 and subsequent conquest of Granada marked the beginning of a unified Spanish kingdom. The forced conversion or expulsion of Jews and Muslims under their rule signaled the start of nation formation through homogenization. This homogenization was driven by religion, highlighting the close association between state and religion. During this time, the Pope held immense power, respected by European monarchs.

However, tensions between monarchs and religious authorities led to conflicts. For instance, the establishment of an independent Protestant church in England in the 1530s marked the beginning of ongoing tensions between state and religion in Europe. The Thirty Years’ War, a conflict between Protestants and Catholics, resulted in the Peace of Westphalia, which decreed that the sovereign ruler of a state had authority over all aspects of the nation and state, including religion. This treaty is often considered the beginning of the modern nation-state concept in Europe, marking the decline of religious control over the state.

As religion’s influence waned, money’s influence grew. We mentioned earlier that money would shape history in the second phase. While we’ve touched on the rise of money, it’s crucial to understand its profound impact. Money played a significant role in the formation of the approximately 200 nation-states we have today by disrupting existing societal structures.

The events following the era of exploration, including colonization, imperialism, wars, and decolonization, all contributed to the formation of modern nation-states. The growing influence of money, particularly through the rise of capitalism, fueled these events.

Next, we will explore the birth of capitalism and its pivotal role in shaping the world and the formation of modern nation-states.